Competency K
Introduction
The eleventh competency in the SJSU iSchool MLIS program is to "design instructional programs based on learning principles and theories".
The proliferation of information in today's society is reaching levels never seen previously in recorded history. This rising tide of information coupled with advancements in computing and internet technologies is transforming the way learning and instruction are conducted. Attempting to teach the breadth and depth of human knowledge becomes a futile effort. The goal of teaching and instruction must be to help learners learn how to learn so that they are motivated to become life-long learners.
Instruction and learning within the context of libraries and information organizations has its roots in the end of the 19th century when Dewey (1876) stated that 'the librarian is in the highest sense a teacher" (p. 6). Librarians are challenged to develop instructional tools and programs for patrons that represent a wide range of various "capabilities, needs, and preferences for assistance". Approaches to teaching within a library context have taken a trial-and-error approach to see what teaching methods best meet the needs of learners (McNeer, 1991, p. 295-296). While this approach can produce successful learning and teaching experiences there is a more sure way for instructors to more directly meet the needs of students and learners. Understanding how learners think and the theories surrounding learning and instruction will impact instructional efforts of an information organization to better meet the needs of its learners (McNeer, 1991, p. 294).
Many theories exist that help explain how knowledge is gained. A classical learning theory that tries to answer how an individual learns something new comes from Plato, the ancient Greek philosopher. He proposed the theory that knowledge is innate, coming with an individual at birth. Teaching is the process of helping one remember what they already know. Another classical theory of learning comes from the British philosopher John Locke. He proposed the theory that the individual is a blank slate at birth but has the mental capacity to process the experiences it gains combining simple ideas together to form more complex ideas. This theory manifests itself to prerequisites for learning (Phillips and Soltis, 1998, p. 15). Learning complex ideas requires first learning and experience more basic concepts. Without experience with the basic, simple ideas the individual will not be able to formulate and understand more complex ideas. Both of these theories treat learning as a passive process.
Behaviorists of the 19th century saw learning as the process of acquiring new behavior that is shaped by one's environment and setting. New theories of learning grew from John Dewey and the Gestalt psychologists that saw the learning process as a more active one based on what the learner did rather than what the teacher taught. New insights and learning come from interacting and engaging with material that is of interest to the learner. Constructivism proposed another view of knowledge and learning that grew from the psychologist Jean Piaget in the early 20th century. This viewpoint saw learning as the formulation of cognitive structures. New information is assimilated into preexisting knowledge frameworks or accommodated by adjusting one's knowledge framework based on experience. This theory proposed that learners grow in stages and emphasized the need of active learning experiences.
These theories emphasize the truth that there are different kinds of learning and different kinds of learners. Learning theories shape and direct the teaching methods and strategies one takes with learners. Methods of learning and teaching can be organized into five major categories (Walsh, 2011, p. 10):
- Traditional instruction
- Active learning
- Computer-assisted instruction
- Learner-centered instruction
- Self-directed independent learning
The traditional instruction method places the instructor as the speaker and lecturer. This traditional, lecture method of instruction is an outcome-based approach. The teacher presents previously prepared material that matches a given set of concepts that the students should learn. The material is organized in a way that can be presented orally and visually. The materials is presented in a classroom or auditorium setting. Students passively received the material as communication is one-way in this approach. Assessing whether the instruction has met the needs of the learners is challenging with this approach.
The active learning method stems from the Socratic Method where Socrates, a classical Greek philosopher, would interact with his students asking them questions and encouraging active participation in the learning process. This type of instruction and learning involves action on the part of the student. The objective of this approach is to ignite the learning of a learner from within; to motivate their own desire for learning through asking questions and seeking answers to those questions. This method is easier to assess and better meets the needs of learners with different learning styles.
Computer-assisted instruction is made possible by advancements in computer and networking technologies. This method utilizes computers and the World Wide Web (WWW) to present tutorials and learning materials in a way that engages the student through interactive activities to achieve previously planned learning objectives. Lessons and tutorials can be accomplished at the learners' pace and is typically accomplished in an individual setting as opposed to a group or classroom setting.
Learner-centered instruction places learners at the center of attention and focus rather than the instructor or lecturer. Learners aren't just actively engaged in learning but in instruction and teaching. Learners are empowered more to seek out knowledge themselves rather than rely on a teacher. Learning occurs within a classroom or group environment. Lessons are designed by the instructor to facilitate learner engagement to learn how to learn and find answers themselves. The instructor or teacher takes on a facilitator or moderator role to guide learners in ways that enable the learner to become self-sufficient.
Self-directed independent learning relies upon the learner taking full initiative for their own education. They determine the activities and materials they want to pursue including assessing their progress in the learning process. Activities are given to the student in a variety of ways that encourages the learner to go beyond the minimal material presented. Learning can take place in a variety of asynchronous or synchronous settings.
Research progress in the study of the mind has created a "cognitive revolution" giving new insights to how individuals learn and understand (Simon, 2000, p. 116). "[T]he meaning of "knowing" has shifted from being able to remember and repeat information to being able to find and use it" (National Research Council, 2000). Instruction and learning must elevate to become more active and involved that creates deep understanding and experience. Efforts to increase the amount of asynchronous instruction and learning in the classroom (including the flipped classroom approach) are examples of striving to elevate the effectiveness of instruction and learning. Example-based teaching, creating learning environments where discovery and exploration is fostered, and helping learners visualize new concepts and ideas are other examples of new approaches to instruction and learning in today's information age. The push towards more active, engaging learning that is hypersensitive to the information and learning needs and abilities of learners flows out of the learning theories developed by philosophers and psychologists. Coursework in the SJSU MLIS program provided opportunities for designing instructional resources based on these learning principles and theories.
Evidence
The following projects and assignments demonstrate examples of designing instructional programs based on learning principles and theories.
- Instructional screencast for creating a web map
- Instructional screencast for using a library database
- Discussion post about flipped classrooms
- Library guide about web mapping
LIBR 210 Instructional Screencast: How to Create a Web Map
Web mapping is an emerging technology on the World Wide Web (WWW) that is a useful tool for information professionals to learn and use. Web mapping is the merging of cartography and the WWW. Most web maps are interactive in nature allowing the user to pan, zoom, and click on the map. While first introduced to the WWW through services like MapQuest and Google Maps, web mapping is available for both the WWW user and creator. There are a variety of web mapping tools that make it easy for anyone with a beginning level of computer experience to create web maps. Information professionals work with a wide variety of data and information. Much of this data has some spatial or geographic location component to it. Web mapping makes it possible to map geographic data on the WWW.
A screencast was developed to help information professionals be more aware of this emerging technology and provide a tutorial that can be followed to create their own web map. The screencast is an engaging way to introduce web mapping to a wider audience that may not be as familiar with cartography and mapping. It leads the viewer along in an incremental way that starts with identifying web maps. The content of the screencast was intentionally positioned for a librarian or information professional with beginning computer skills to complete. This user audience shaped what content was included, the way it was presented, and the terminology and jargon used to present it. Examples of existing web maps and web mapping technologies are initially shown to help orient the user to the subject matter. The main focus of the screencast is to lead the viewer through the steps they need to take to make their own web map. The screencast begins by showing a finished version of the web map so the viewer has a frame of reference and vision of what can come from following along in the screencast. The screencast was scripted in a way that would make it easy for the viewer to have success if they followed along. The audio and video of the screencast are synced together so that what the viewer sees matches what is being discussed.
Using an online video as the mechanism for delivering the instruction has the downside of lacking a good support mechanism for answering questions and follow-up. The screencast places more burden on the viewer to stay motivated in following along with the video to create their own web map. An advantage of the asynchronous online video instruction is the flexibility of the viewer to consume the material at their own pace. The video can be re-watched multiple times as well as pausing and starting to capture details as desired. This video was made using Vimeo and allows the video to be embedded into different websites. This flexibility would allow a librarian to embed the video in a library guide or on the organization's intranet. The length of the screencast was kept under 12 minutes intentionally to not intimidate viewers and to help assure that creating a web map doesn't need to take a large amount of time. Sample map data that the viewer needs to create the map shown in the screencast is available for download using a link in the video description. Effort was made to show each step of the process so that the viewer wouldn't feel lost or disoriented while viewing.
This screencast was developed based on the active learning, computer-aided instruction, and the self-directed methods of instruction. These methods are rooted in constructivist learning theories that emphasize offering learners activities and experiences to build and construct their own knowledge framework. This approach relies on the initiative of the learner to engage with the material and gain their own insights as they work through the tutorial presented in the screencast.
LIBR 210 Instructional Screencast: IEEE Xplore Library Database Training
Library research databases vary widely in their interfaces and implementations. Vendors follow their own styles and approaches to creating search, browse, and viewing interfaces for accessing content in a database. Because of this variety it can be confusing for a patron to know how to use a particular database interface. A screencast was developed to help explain how to use the IEEE Xplore Digital Library to undergraduate engineering students in fields such as electrical, computer, bioengineering, and geoscience.
This video was made using Vimeo and allows the video to be embedded into different websites. This flexibility would allow a librarian or professor to embed the video in a library guide, course blog, or website. A link to the IEEE Xplore Digital Library was included in the video description. The screencast begins by showing the viewer the main website and explaining the database content and intended audience. Then the screencast shows how undergraduates can access the database using the university library's website. After explaining how to get to the database the screencast demonstrates how to perform a basic, advanced, and command line search using the database. Then the screencast demonstrates two hypothetical search situations that relate to the intended audience.
The screencast was scripted in a way that would make it easy for the viewer to have success if they followed along. The audio and video of the screencast are synced together so that what the viewer sees matches what is being discussed. The length of the screencast was limited to under 10 minutes to be a more consumable length for a busy college student. Delivering this material using an online video allowed the viewer flexibility in consuming the content at their own pace. The screencast provides an introduction to using the database and hopefully sparks students into exploring the database more as well as reaching out to a subject librarian if they have questions not answered by the video.
This instructional screencast follows the active learning, computer-aided instruction, and self-directed instructional methods. Objectives of the screencast included giving the viewer their own experiences working with the library database interface trusting that the viewer's understanding and motivations in using the interface would grow with more experience and hands-on learning.
LIBR 210 Discussion Post: Flipped Classrooms
Pedagogical methods and techniques evolve and develop as computer and networking technologies progress. The emergence of the internet and the WWW in the late 20th century enabled new forms of instruction and learning. Some of these forms are simply digital versions of presently held methodologies and approaches. The flipped classroom is a new form of teaching and instruction that is made easier with digital and computing technologies.
The traditional instruction-learning model included students coming to class and interacting with the professor in a synchronous session. The instructor presents a prepared lecture introducing and explaining specific concepts that the students need to learn. To help reinforce these concepts the instructor assigns reading or exercises to complete on the student's own time by a specific deadline. The student would take the assignment home to work on asynchronously. The assignment would then be turned back into the instructor who would then grade the work showing the student how well they understood the material.
The flipped classroom reverses this approach. Using multi-media content the instructor assigns lecture materials for the students to review on their own time away from the classroom (asynchronously). When the students come to class they have already consumed the lecture material and are given time in class (synchronous) to ask questions and work on exercises and problems to help re-enforce the materials. In its purest form the flipped classroom switches where the lectures and assigned homework are accomplished. By allowing the students to work on assignments in the classroom they can ask questions and get immediate feedback from the instructor to know how well they are understanding the material.
A discussion post addresses the strengths and weaknesess of this pedagogical approach. Strengths of this approach include being able to consume and review lecture material at ones own pace. The time spent in the classroom becomes more valuable for the students motivating them to attend class as much as possible. This method also has the potential for increasing the level of engagement from the students and helping them apply what they learn in a classroom environment with the direct support and supervision of the instructor. Weaknesses of this approach include ignoring how students learn. Some students learn better with the traditional approach while others may prefer the flipped classroom approach. Another downside is that the flipped classroom demands more self-initiated work from the students and the instructor. This can be challenging for those who need mentoring and guidance to initiate the learning process. The amount of preparation for instructors to prepare lecture material in a way that students can consume out of the classroom may also be a challenge. Aspects of both the flipped and traditional classroom approaches are used in the SJSU MLIS program. This discussion post provided an opportunity to learn more about this new pedagogical method.
LIBR 210: Web Mapping Library Guide
A library guide (also referred to as pathfinder, subject guide, research guide, or study guide) is a kind of bibliography used as an entryway for a researcher into a particular subject area. The guide provides a path or map to direct the focus of a researcher towards major concepts, subject headings, and resources that they can use to explore more about the given topic as it pertains to their research queries. Researchers using the guide are introduced to the subject area and shown key sources for the given domain. The major concepts, subjects headings, and resources are curated by an information professional with expertise in the subject area. The materials are presented in a user-friendly format that is inviting and easy for the researcher to use. While traditionally printed, the WWW enables the publishing of library guides online in hyperlinked formats.
A project in a reference services course (LIBR 210) involved creating an online library guide about the subject of web mapping. Web mapping is an emerging technology on the WWW that provides new and interesting ways to visualize geographic data to a wider audience. The intended audience for this library guide is academic faculty and students in the field of geography and cartography. The library guide helps faculty and students in geography-related degrees learn more about web mapping as well as find resources to help them create their own web maps for academic research and learning.
The library guide was constructed using HTML (HyperText Markup Language) and CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) from scratch and hosted using Github Pages. Using these technologies provided opportunities to explore how to create a user-friendly library guide using standard web development technologies. By creating the guide from scratch it allowed full control over the presentation and style of the guide. A table of contents is present on the left-side of every page in the guide that presents major topics covered in the guide in a hierarchical format. The guide is structured into five main pages:
- What is web mapping?
- How are web maps used?
- How do I make a web map?
- Additional resources
- About
These five main pages are designed to cover the basic questions a researcher would ask in learning about web mapping and how they can utilize it in their research. The visual hierarchy of content on each page is designed to be easy-to-read and easy-to-scan. The guide also includes an example web map embedded in-line with the guide as an illustrative example of the possibilities of web maps. Content, style, and design decisions made during the construction of the guide aligned with the guide's purpose and intended audience: create a user-friendly online library guide about web mapping for academic geography students and faculty.
This library guide is shaped by the active learning teaching method that has roots in constructivist learning theory. By creating a hyperlinked library guide the learner is forced to interact with the guide clicking and navigating the content and its structure. This hands-on experience with the material is designed to give them experiences with the material where they can explore and discover new insights for themselves.
Conclusion
Just as traditional modes of instruction and learning are adapting and changing the approach information organizations take towards instruction and learning must also adapt and change. One scholar noted that "[a]s faculty and students increasingly use the Web for teaching, research, and scholarly communication, the library’s traditional patterns of service delivery, including bibliographic instruction (BI), are called into question" (Ladner, Beagle, Steele, & Steele, 2004, p. 329). Computer and networking technologies create new possibilities and applications of teaching methods and techniques. Technology enables the creation of new kinds of instructional aids and tools that have the potential to reach and engage with learners in more meaningful ways. Theories and principles of learning create a foundation that all teaching methods are built upon. Coursework and projects completed in the SJSU MLIS program offered opportunities to create and design instructional programs based on learning principles that meet the needs of patrons. With this new understanding and new technologies there is an increased need to use assessment more fully to ensure that instruction and learning matches the needs and preparation of today's learners (LaGuardia, 2012, p. 603).
References
Dewey, M. (1876). The profession. The American Library Journal, 1(1). 5-6. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=0R0DAAAAYAAJ
Ladner, B., Beagle, D., Steele, J. R., and Steele, L. (2004). Rethinking online instruction: from content transmission to cognitive immersion. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 43(4), p. 337-345.
LaGuardia, C. (2012). Library instruction in the digital age. Journal of Library Administration, 52, p. 601-608. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01930826.2012.707956
McNeer, E. J. (1991). Learning theories and library instruction. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 17(5), p. 294-297.
National Research Council (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Retrieved from https://www.nap.edu/catalog/9853/how-people-learn-brain-mind-experience-and-school-expanded-edition
Phillips, D. C. & Soltis, J. F. (1998). Perspectives on learning. New York: Teachers College Press.
Simon, H. A. (2000). Observations on the sciences of science learning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21(1), p. 115-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0193-3973(99)00055-6
Walsh, J. (2011). Information literacy instruction. Oxford: Chandos Publishing. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-627-2.50006-X